In this seventh installment of his illuminating lecture series, Abbas Amanat delves into the complex and evolving interplay between Razm (warfare) and Bazm (leisure/entertainment) in Iranian history. These twin concepts, deeply embedded in the country’s cultural and political fabric, have long served as complementary forces in legitimizing authority, shaping artistic expression, and structuring governance. Tracing their roots from the Sasanian era to the modern age, Amanat examines how Razm and Bazm have transformed under the pressures of modernity, shifting from instruments of power reinforcement to sites of resistance and critique. Through this exploration, he reveals how these enduring dualities influence Iran’s political landscape, artistic movements, and contemporary struggles for freedom and justice.

Ancient Origins

The ideas of Razm and Bazm are deeply embedded in Iranian culture, with origins tracing back at least to the Sasanian era. However, these notions were evident even earlier in pre-Islamic Iranian literature and Mesopotamian art, symbolizing complementary aspects of influential figures, especially rulers. These dual attributes—martial prowess and refined leisure—were crucial in shaping the perception of masculinity and legitimizing authority.

Transformation in the Modern Era

In modern times, Razm evolved into a state-controlled and organized display of power, a notion explored by political thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, who emphasized its necessity for maintaining social order. Meanwhile, Bazm transitioned into state patronage of the arts, including music, literature, and even historiography. Historians uniquely documented both Razm and Bazm, thereby navigating the intersection of political power and cultural production. In a broader sense, Bazm also extended to urban development and infrastructure projects, reflecting the state’s aesthetic and cultural ambitions.

The Impact of Modernity

Modernity, or novin-gari, as Amanat describes it, paradoxically expanded the state’s capacity for Razm through technological advancements, making it more repressive despite a seemingly refined exterior. At the same time, state support for Bazm diminished, leading to a shift in the role of arts and culture. Instead of reinforcing state legitimacy as in the past, they increasingly became mediums of criticism and protest against authority.

Razm as Duty: The Pre-Modern Norm of War

Theoretically, Razm was associated with the responsibility of rulers to safeguard their territories and subjects. In the pre-modern world, war was considered the norm, with peace occurring only through treaties and diplomacy. A prime example is Iran’s historical interactions with Rome during the Parthian era, where warfare and diplomacy coexisted as strategic necessities.

Bazm as Reward and Wealth Redistribution

Bazm also served a political and economic function, acting as a moment for redistributing the spoils of war to the military and administrative elites. This circulation of wealth was critical for maintaining the cycle of justice in governance—hoarding wealth could weaken the ruler’s legitimacy and hasten their downfall.

Internal Razm: Politics and Punishment

Beyond external warfare, Razm also manifested internally in the form of siyasat (politics) and tanbih (punishment). Maintaining control over the population often relied on tactics of fear and intimidation, reinforcing the ruler’s authority through displays of power.

Shifts in Bazm: Rise of Critique and Journalism

From the late 19th century onward, Bazm became increasingly distinct from state power. Journalism, social commentary, and poetry flourished as tools of critique rather than mere entertainment. This shift, influenced by global intellectual movements, nurtured a culture of protest against authoritarian rule. Humanist and populist perspectives, alongside emerging leftist ideologies, contributed to this transformation, challenging the traditional role of elites in shaping cultural narratives.

The Pahlavi Era: Reconciling Razm and Bazm?

During the Pahlavi period, particularly in the 1960s and 70s, there was an effort to reconcile Razm and Bazm through state-controlled cultural initiatives, most notably via national radio and television. While these institutions aimed to legitimize the regime, they also inadvertently provided a platform for dissenting voices. However, critics like Jalal Al-Ahmad condemned this co-option of intellectuals, arguing that the state’s control over media and culture diluted genuine critique.

Modern State Control: Beyond Military Power

In the contemporary era, state legitimacy no longer relies solely on military force (Razm). Instead, modern governments employ various tools, including financial resources (such as oil revenues), mass education, propaganda, media control, and the overarching ideology of nationalism. These mechanisms allow the state to consolidate power while maintaining an illusion of progress and inclusivity.

Contemporary Reflections: Women, Life, Freedom

Amanat views the Zan, Zendegi, Azadi (Women, Life, Freedom) movement as a continuation of this long-standing culture of critique—an independent force outside state control. This movement embodies the spirit of Bazm in its modern form, where cultural and intellectual resistance plays a crucial role in challenging oppressive structures.

Conclusion: A Continuous Evolution

Amanat’s analysis of Razm and Bazm reveals how these concepts have evolved alongside Iran’s historical trajectory, adapting to the challenges of modernity and shifting socio-political landscapes. While they once served to legitimize authority, they have become sites of contestation and resistance in contemporary Iran. This enduring duality continues to shape Iranian culture and politics, demonstrating the resilience of these historical constructs in the face of change.

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In line with the vision of the Iran 1400 Project, which aims to explore the evolution of ideas and institutions in Iran over the past century to foster informed discussions about its future, we are pleased to share a summary of Abbas Amanat’s lecture series titled “Intertwined Dualities and the Challenge of Modernity in Iran.” This series was produced by Aasoo, a non-profit organization affiliated with the Tasselmi Foundation. Aasoo promotes dialogue and tolerance through research, publications, and multimedia initiatives, fostering understanding and inclusion within Iranian society. We extend our gratitude to our friends at Aasoo for facilitating this enlightening lecture series, which addresses the complex challenges of modernity in Iran.

The lectures are conducted in Farsi, and the Iran 1400 Project provides a summary and key takeaways of each lecture in English to engage a broader audience.

• Overview of Abbas Amanat’s Lecture Series on “Intertwined Dualities and the Challenge of Modernity in Iran”
• Part 1: The Evolution of Bum and Bar in Iran
• Part 2: The Evolution of “Iran” and “Aniran” in Iranian Identity
• Part 3: The Evolution of Dargah and Divan
• Part 4: The Evolution of Din and Dolat
• Part 5: The Evolution of Bazaar and Meydon
• Part 6: The Evolution of Birun and Andarun in Iranian Society: Gender Roles and Spatial Evolution